Pan Africanism Essay

Pan-africanism has a dual character: it is at the same time (i) an international political movement and (ii) a socio-political world-view, a philosophical and cultural umbrella concept, which seeks to correct the historical and cultural outrage that Europe has perpetrated on the continent during the past several centuries. An international movement As an international movement, the term denotes the forward-looking elements in Africa that have as their common goal the unity of all Africans and the elimination of colonialism and white supremacy from the continent. The First Pan-African Congress was held in London in 1900, and was followed by others in Paris in 1919, in London and Brussels (1921), London and Lisbon (1923), and in New York City in 1927. These conventions were organized chiefly by W. E. B. Du Bois[1] and attended by the North American and West Indian black intelligentsia. These, however, did not propose immediate African independence, rather, they favored gradual self-government and ‘interracialism’. In 1944, several African organizations in London joined to form the Pan-African Federation, which for the first time demanded African autonomy and independence. The Sixth Pan-African Congress was convened   in Manchester, England,   in 1945,   to which came future political leaders of Africa such as Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya, Kwame Nkrumah of the Gold Coast, S. L. Akintola of Nigeria, and Wallace Johnson of Sierra Leone.   At the Manchester congress, Nkrumah founded the West African National Secretariat to promote a so-called ‘United States of Africa’. Pan-africanism can also be considered as an intergovernmental movement; which was launched in 1958 with the First Conference of Independent African States in Accra, Ghana. Ghana and Liberia were the only sub-Saharan countries represented; the rest were Arab and Muslim. Thereafter, as independence was achieved by more African states, other interpretations of Pan-Africanism emerged, including: the Union of African States (1960), the African States of the Casablanca Charter (1961), the African and Malagasy Union (1961), the Organization of Inter-African and Malagasy States (1962), and the African-Malagasy-Mauritius Common Organization (1964). In 1963 the Organization of African Unity (OAU) was founded to promote unity and cooperation among all African states and to bring an end to colonialism; and by 1995, it had 53 members. The OAU struggled with border disputes, aggression or subversion against one member by another, separatist movements, and the collapse of order in member states. One of its longest commitments and greatest victories was the end of apartheid and the establishment of majority rule in South Africa. Efforts to promote even greater African economic, social, and political integration led to the establishment in 2001 of the African Union (AU), a successor organization to the OAU modeled on the European Union. The AU fully superseded the OAU in 2002, after a transitional period. A socio-political world-view Pan-Africanism is also a sociopolitical world-view, which seeks to unify and uplift both native Africans and those of the African Diaspora, as part of a â€Å"global African community†. As originally conceived by Henry Sylvester Williams of Trinidad, pan-Africanism referred to the unity of all continental Black African cultures and countries. The concept soon expanded, however, to include all Black African-descended people worldwide, who had been dispersed to the United States of America, the Caribbean, Latin America and even parts of the Middle East and South Asia through the trans-Atlantic and Islamic/East African slave trades and, later, immigration. More recently, the term has expanded to encompass the Dravidian Blacks of India, including the Tamil, Siddi, Kamil, Kanikar and others; the Andamanese Island Negritos and the Black aboriginal populations of Australia, New Guinea and Melanesia. Pan-Africanism as a movement actually began in the West Indies, not Africa. Williams coined the term at the 1900 Pan-African Congress. To date, the Afro-Jamaican Marcus Garvey[2] has led the largest pan-African movement in world history with his UNIA-ACL organization that he founded in Kingston, Jamaica in 1912, and ‘Garveyism’ quickly spread in the United States when he moved his headquarters to Harlem in 1914. Pan-Africanism in essence means the unity of all Black African descended people worldwide irrespective of ethnicity/culture or nationality. The Rastafarian movement of Jamaica grew out of pan-Africanism, when Marcus Garvey declared ‘look to Africa for the crowning of a Black king’; the Rastas looked to Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia. (Ironically, Garvey criticized Selassie on many issues).   Also a branch of the pan-African movement is the Afro-centric movement, of whom Cheikh Anta Diop and his ‘idealogical son’ Molefi Kete Asante are the champions. This movement centers on reexaming African history from a pro-African perspective as opposed to the a pro-European one, a return to traditional African concepts and culture and often espouses the view that Egypt and some other civilizations were and should be acknowledged as having Black African origin. Also associated with pan-Africanism is Black Nationalism. During apartheid in South Africa there was a Pan Africanist Congress that dealt with the oppression of Black South Africans under White apartheid rule. Other pan-Africanist organizations include Garvey’s Universal Negro Improvement Association-African Communities Pan-Africanism is often criticized for overlooking the cultural and ethnic differences as well as different socio-political circumstances. Role of Pan-africanism in the modern history of Africa The role that pan African movement has played in minimizing inter-governmental conflicts and ‘civil war’- like situations in some African countries has been very significant. The restriction of the page limit for the essay does not permit me to go into the details of these conflicts. However, the pivotal role that the movement played in the proposals to reform the United Nations Organization deserves more than a cursory mention. The campaign for the proposed reforms of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), while producing fireworks around the world, has also opened up old historical wounds and heightened regional rivalries in Africa. The hottest rivalries have been in Asia, particularly between India and Pakistan, and between Japan, South Korea and China, but Africa has also exhibited some kind of divisions along regional and language lines as countries scramble for permanent seats in the Security Council. African countries jockeying for the permanent seats have been South Africa, Nigeria, Kenya, Egypt and Libya. To that list, Senegal has been the latest addition, The African Union (AU) is flummoxed as to which of its member states to endorse, and has yet to establish the criteria to be used for selecting African countries to the reformed Security Council. The entry of Senegal into the race has only increased the dilemma, and is an indication of the AU’s indecision. In creating this leadership vacuum, the AU is leaving the selection of who will represent Africa on the expanded UN Security Council to be determined by foreign busybodies and regional power struggles. A working group that was appointed in January 2005 during the Abuja Summit of the African Union to make recommendations on the proposed UN reforms presented its report to the Foreign Ministers on March 7, 2005 in Addis Ababa, but was deafeningly silent on the selection criteria for Security Council permanent seats. What the AU stands to gain from a reformed Security Council According to the â€Å"Ezulwini Consensus,† which was adopted by the AU Foreign Ministers as Africa’s common position on UN reform, â€Å"Africa’s goal is to be fully represented in all the decision-making organs of the UN, particularly in the Security Council, which is the principal decision-making organ of the UN in matters relating to international peace and security.† Many observers feel that the UNSC is now more important than ever to Africa, particularly concerning matters of intervention in the conflicts occurring within the region. A consensus as to the criterion of UNSC membership is the least expected of the African States.    References    Kadiatu Kann,   Ã‚  African Identities: Race, Nation and Culture in Ethnography, Pan-Africanism and Black Literatures, ROUTLEDGE, LONDON, 1998. Kwame Anthony Appiah,  Ã‚   In My Father’s House: Africa in the Philosophy of Culture, Oxford University Press, 1992

Grace of God Essay

The traditional social order is marked by the three estates it comprised off. The ruler who is supposed to be ‘by the Grace of God’ was absolute in his power. The first estate comprised of the clergy who were responsible for community well being by conducting prayers and sacred ceremonies. The next estate is the nobility who are in charge of protecting the country from foreign invasions. They also played an important role in government and in administration. The third estate consisted of the majority of population. They generated wealth that fed the entire society. Real estate and regional commerce were their main activity. This order underwent change at the wake many significant events. The French revolution gave power to the bourgeois, the third order. The French viewed democracy as a building block of creating a new social order where there is no self proclaimed monarchy hovering over. The spirit of French revolution spread across Europe. And slowly the rising started everywhere. The colonized countries started gaining grounds in their home lands. The Sepoy Mutiny in India is an example of the social order undergoing a change. The natives organized an uprising against the British. It may not have deterred the British in their pursuit to expand but it did mark an important turn of events. Similarly the West had its influence on Japan and China. The monarchy and the aristocracy slowly started to adopt the ways of the West. Starting from their dressing to their way of life, a significant transformation was taking place. The Crimean War,1853-1856 Describe the causes, course, and consequences of the Crimean War and evaluate the effect of the war on Russia’s government. One of the main causes of the Crimean War is the misperceptions in Russia, Britain and France. Britain and France were disturbed that Russia was the strongest state in Europe and its assumed Russian expansion plans towards Turkey. On the other hand Russia was cautious of revolutionary France. Russia was also expecting the fall of Turkey. Moreover in the holy place of Palestine the Catholics were favored by France and the orthodox Christians were favored by Russia. The Catholic and Orthodox monks disputed possession of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. During the early 1850s, the two sides made demands which the Sultan of Turkey could not possibly satisfy simultaneously. To solve this issue the Tsar of Russia, Nicholas I sent his diplomat for talks which failed. The demands made by the Tsar were rejected. Austria contrary to what Russia believed sided Britain. Further in an attempt to revert war a four point proposal was presented to the Tsar. When the Tsar refused to comply with the four points, the Crimean War commenced. The reality of the war is that France and Russia injured each other’s options without knowing they did so. France overestimated Russia’s hostility and Russia underestimated British and French interest in Turkey. As a result, Russia seeking to secure Black Sea region lost its control until 1871. Russian power in the area declined to be restored only after fourteen years. During peace negotiations in 1986, it was decided that no warship would occupy the Black sea coast. This became a specific disadvantage to Russia as it diminished the naval threat it posed to the Turks. Compare and contrast China’s and Japan’s response to western influence for the period of 1850 to 1865. In the 1800s China and Japan experienced both major internal strains and Western imperialist pressure which was backed by military might which the natives couldnot match. China’s leading position in the world reversed in a mere 100 year period (c. a. 1840-1940) from leading civilization to subjected and torn country. The Japanese witnessed China’s experience with the military power of Western nations. At the arrival of an American delegation in Japan in 1853, Japan was also forced to open its ports to the Americans. But unlike China, Japan was able to adapt rapidly to match the power of the West and soon established itself as a competitor with the Western powers for colonial rights in Asia. In 1894-5, Japan challenged and defeated China in a war over influence in Korea. This upset the traditional international order in East Asia, where China was the supreme power and Japan was a subordinate power. Western nations utilized China for their opium trade. They took silver bullions from China as commodity exchange. China’s attempt to ban the sale of opium in the port city of Canton leads to the Opium War of 1839. The Chinese were defeated by the British arms. This lead to China opening up its ports for foreign trade. By 1800 China was in a vulnerable position in the hands of the West. From the 1860s onward, the Chinese attempted to reform efforts to meet the military and political challenge of the West. China adopted Western learning and technology while preserving Chinese values and Chinese learning. Reformers and conservatives struggled to find the right formula to make China strong enough to protect itself against foreign pressure. The Japanese taking the cue from China launched a major modernization effort in 1868 to match the West and then came to be a major competitor for rights. Japan’s defeat of Russia, a Western power, in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05 surprised China. This way the West influenced two the countries in its most significant way.

Emma Goldman Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Emma Goldman - Essay Example Howard Zinn’s portrayal of Emma is typical of his style. Zinn has the ability to depict history with a wit that is full of self-mocking humor. Zinn has invested his heroine Emma with all the fiery radicalism of her feminist, anarchist and free thinking ways. But all this militant posturing is toned down by revealing her honesty, nature, selflessness and courage, which make her heroics more believable. This also moves the play from a moralistic plane to one that educates. According to author Tom H. Hastings, the play shows the period of Goldmans "nonviolence and resistance to militarism", rather than her earlier "attachment to violent revolution". The first Act of the play deals with Emma’s youth, when she breaks away from the rigid conventions of her Orthodox Jewish family and enters New York. This is the city teeming with immigrants from scores of country, who colour the city with their unconventional lifestyle. It is in New York, that she meets Alexander Berkman, who was to remain her lover, as well as her comrade throughout her life. Apart from him, the play is peopled by others who helped Emma throughout her turbulent life. Helena, Emma’s sister, Dr. Ben Reitman, who is a physician with unconventional characteristics, Anna Minkin, a member from Emma’s commune, Fedya, another artist and commune member, Liz Beth, the prison muse and Emma’s sympathizer in the jail, who teaches Emma the art of being a muse and a midwife, and Vito, a worker in the sewers, are some of the other important members of the drama. This play is a document against the evil of sex discrimination and the inequality of wealth which Emma Goldman so vehemently protested throughout her life.

Organizational Business Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Organizational Business - Assignment Example You should take sometimes before you start changing the employees status quo, these period when you are acclimatizing to your new leadership position is vital in the sense that it gives you an opportunity to know why certain activities are taking place. Once this is established, you will know the approach to take so that tour actions do not generate friction with the employees (Yukl 156). The other guideline is the identification of the informal officials amongst the employees, these officials wields enough powers to influence the decision of the other employees. With regard to that, a good leader should earmark such people and develop friendship with them so that your actions do not internally antagonized. As a leader, it is also essential to have the basic history about your employees on the successes they had accomplished sometimes back and using them as examples for achievement of future goals. When this is done the employees do have the feeling that they are recognized and this motivates them. A leader should also endeavor to interview employees, when employees as this can enable them to get hidden information on what to do to increase efficiency at the work place. Lastly, a good leader needs to set goals to the employees, now that all the employees are understood and you have adapted to the system, it becomes easier to win the trust of the employees. Setting of the goals should also be done in consultation with the employees so that it does not appear as they are on the receiving end (Yukl 167). Regarding the guidelines stipulated above, there is one that can be of great help to the company to which this project is aimed at; identification of the informal officials and developing a cordial relationship with them. The reason as to why I deem it necessary is the fact that in the company there are many informal organizations amongst the employees each with their leader. It is then possible that they believe these leaders and identifying and compromising them will be of great value to the company (Yukl 176). In an organization, conflicts are experienced frequently simply because there are many personalities involved coupled with the dynamic nature of human beings. Some conflicts are structural while others are personal. 1. The structural ones include poor communication where information flow is not clear and failure to execute plans arises due to this 2. Poor organization- this can also lead to conflict due to overlapping of duties causing absconding of duties by some employees. 3. Conflicting goals and objectives will definitely cause conflicts at work place as there is no one to blame for any inconsistency. The personal factors include; 1. Poor skills, this will lead to shifting of blames as no one will be willing to take liability 2. Stresses, employees with personal hangovers are troublesome and will always ignite conflicts at work place. 3. Ego, some employees have the tendency of not consulting on issues as they suppose that will be little them, in such cases they always error and this brew tension in the work place 2 b). In one occasion at the work place, we were assigned duties in groups of fives to ensure that a list of supplies is made ready for debit. In the due course, one of us brought a duly completed list as expected by the departmental head. On realizing this, we absconded doing the same on the premise that one of us has just done the duty, little

Case Study Write up (Don't have any topic) Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Write up (Don't have any topic) - Case Study Example The business owners need to create a variety of fresh content for their social media every week. Furthermore, owners should use a variety of social media platforms such as: Twitter, Facebook and Instagram. Previously, owners mainly used word of mouth to promote their products. Using social media platforms has its disadvantages including: the owner needs to change content regularly so as to keep the consumers interested, and they also have to focus on a single media platform since using several shall confuse the consumers. The advantage of using social media platforms is that the business owner can increase participation in offline activities. The information in the social media platform can be updated from time to time. If the business is in a van, the consumers can easily know your new location and this ensures that you maintain a loyal customer base. Using television ads: Televisions are a common feature in almost every modern household. This means that business owners can reach a wide range of consumers with this form of marketing. This form of marketing is extremely expensive and time consuming since the commercial has to be acted out by professional performers. Word-of-mouth: This form of advertising involves telling people about your business by speaking to people. This is an extremely cheap means of marketing since all that is needed are some sweet words and charisma. However, this form of marketing is quite tedious since one must walk around stopping complete strangers and convince them to come buy their product. Using placards: This form of advertising is good for a small business since it provides a detailed summary about the business. The only disadvantage is on illiterate people who will not be able to decipher the information. Using radio ads: Radios are the most widespread electronic communication device in rural areas. This form of marketing means that the small business owner can reach

Exploiting the Native Americans Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Exploiting the Native Americans - Essay Example s of Native Americans, the colonists necessitated having to consult pertinent documents substantiating the expeditions of Columbus as well as hearsays from fishermen and traders which detailed personal encounters with the indigenous Americans. Perhaps through the stories relayed by Spanish visitors of the land, they found out that the latter often appeared to match emblematic descriptions as ‘savage’, ‘beastlike’, ‘flesh-eating’, or any such term near ‘hostile’. On the other hand though, there existed locals as the Indian tribes that exhibited character of earnest openness and received the Europeans well, notwithstanding mixed emotions and motives.  While many of them fell into the assumption that foreign invaders arrived for a good cause inclusive of the will to form allies to aid them in combating native adversaries, gradually, they discovered that the people from the West were scheming to exploit their resources. As an indirect manner of exploiting the native Americans, Europeans generally acknowledged trade with the latter from whom they obtained animal skins and hides and a wampum of polished shell beads in exchange of technology-based weaponry, liquors, and even religion and disease type which bore negative impact upon the sense of independence and natural system of the local people. Initially, this relation enabled the natives to trust the settlers with their properties and resources, understanding the risk measures the foreigners had to undergo in order to survive the New World that originally belonged to the indigenous inhabitants. Eventually though, the stealthy nature of the colonizers’ primary aim was revealed and the natives realized that their course of action reflected a hidden goal of securing lands and trading for the purpose of acquiring tools to exploit the indigenous Americans. Despite the Puritan attitude, it became clear that land acquisition by the western intruder s meant complete exclusion of the natives from the huge

Consists of ten short-answer questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Consists of ten short-answer questions - Essay Example According to Murray (2012), examples of prewriting strategies include free-writing and brainstorming. Prewriting strategies are writing techniques used by individuals as they prepare to write a research paper, essay, or project. They are consider the preliminary stages in ascertaining and as well investigating a subject matter. In free-writing, an individual scribbles down each and every thought he or she has regarding a particular subject matter. In brainstorming, an individual recollects what he or she can remember regarding a particular subject matter in his or her mind. Subsequently, these recollections are scribbled down on a in form of a list. It is worth noting that free writing involves writing opinions that one generates in his or her mind regarding the matter in question. In this writing strategy, the correctness and precision of what is being written down is not imperative. The main objective is to generate ideas that can be useful is structuring the paper. In contrast, focused writing involves scribbling down individual thoughts centered on specific question. Though free-writing are focused writing are similar, the essayist in focused writing writes down his or her ideas focusing on a previously described or delineated project or question (Murray, 2012). A comparison and contrast paragraph elucidates the variations and correspondence among two or more subject matters. It is important to posit the fact that there is no limit to the number of variations and correspondences indicated on the paragraph. A cause-and-effect paragraph, on the other hand, is a paragraph elucidating the reasons behind a particular occurrence. This type of paragraph seeks to offer a response to issues put forward by a particular subject or mater (Murray, 2012). In other words, a cause-and-effect paragraph answers the why while a comparison and contrast paragraph explicates the

Choose a topic for the Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Choose a topic for the Paper - Essay Example The causes for the great depression are many and complex but the basic reasons for the great depression can be listed as a stock market which crashed, economic trends which were negative and a lack of investments in large projects. Industries such as heavy machinery production, shipbuilding and mining operations were worst hit and they had to let go of thousands of workers who could not find jobs to replace the ones they had lost (Wheeler, 2007). Amongst the after effects of the Great Depression was the New Deal which was offered by Roosevelt to the Americans which gave fair wages for fair work. A forty hour work week was created to make sure that positions could be given to all those who wanted to work and massive deficit spending was undertaken by the government to give the economy a boost. In fact, the current transport network which crisscrosses across America is one of the projects which was started to get America out of its economically stagnant state (Higgs, 1992). The Great Depression, even though it was a sad period for those who went through it brought many advantages for those who came after the period since the decisions made then have kept the American economy stable for decades. For example, the idea of a minimum wage comes from the aftermath of the great depression and the benefits to the southern half of the American states were immense since the economic focus shifted from agriculture to industrialization and services (Parker, 2007). I feel that Americans lost trust in financial institutions such as banks and insurance companies in the years which followed the great depression and came to depend more on the relationship they had with the government. Franklin Roosevelt probably benefited most from the era since he was able to pull America out of the situation and was (and still is) seen as a hero for the nation. His New Deal worked for a lot

COMMERCIAL AWARENESS AND PROFESSIONAL ETHICS Essay

COMMERCIAL AWARENESS AND PROFESSIONAL ETHICS - Essay Example that professional ethics is a constant feature in the legal profession, modern legal practice has attracted renewed attention to how professional ethics applies to the profession. For example, while discourse on professional ethics in legal practice tended to focus more on sensational cases such as lawyers knowingly keeping a secret that is life-threatening, some modern scholars are advocating for an interpretive approach that focuses on ordinary cases. According to Markovits, using sensational cases to analyze or evaluate professional ethics in the legal practice is contrary to the principle that ‘great cases make bad laws’.1 The purpose of this paper is to assess the content and role of ethics in modern legal practice. Ethics is a broad topic. Even within the legal practice, the subject of ethics covers a wide range of issues and areas. There are volumes of books, articles, and publications on professional ethics as it applies to the legal practice. However, to understand the general content of ethics in the modern legal practice, it is important to focus narrowly on some of the most recent discourses on ethics. In this respect, the paper will focus on the Model Code developed and administered by the American Bar Association (ABA). Some of the main ethical issues contain the Model Code of client-lawyer relationship, professional integrity, and information management. It is worth noting that the Model Code has undergone various revisions to fit the modern legal practice because the original canons were specifically meant for the legal practice in the past.2 Under professional ethics for practicing lawyers, one of the fundamental principles is the need for a professional and confidential relationship between the lawyer and the client. Under this ethical principle, several issues are covered including confidentiality, fees, conflicts of interest, and professionalism. For instance, it would be considered unethical for a lawyer to engage with a client with whom

Internship Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Internship Report - Essay Example Summary 23 Works Cited 25 H. Appendix 27 1. Organization Chart 27 3. Financial Data 2011 28 A. Introduction The report states about my experiences gained from the internship period at Disney Vacation Club in Orlando, Florida. Furthermore, the paper also intends to specify the department in which my responsibilities had been assigned along with the skills and knowledge that I was able to gain from the internship in order to deal with the challenges while working in a corporate sector. Internship is a process of rendering on-the-job training to new recruits with the intention of grooming their skills and experiences which further helps the intern to act in accordance with the organizational requirements. In relation to this aspect it can be stated that internship has emerged as one of the essential factors for attaining higher career growth among the high school and university students along with the post-graduate adults. Furthermore, internship often acts as a platform for the student s where they can implement their gained knowledge and skills expanding their information with corporate data (Yafang & Gongyong, â€Å"A Study on Hospitality Students’ Satisfaction towards their Internship: a Case from Hang Zhou, China†). The report also intends to elaborate on the work culture of the organization in which I am completing my internship, i.e. Disney Vacation Club. ... It also signifies the developed skills and measures which are often considered by the internee towards improving the organizational performances while satisfying the customers’ demands. B. Descriptive Section 1. Company Profile Disney Vacation Club (DVC) was founded in the year to serve the national as well as international tourists with a place to spend holidays or vacations with families as well as friends. DVC’s operations are operated by its Walt Disney Company (WDC). DVC also provides its vast clientele with resort facilities in various destinations which include Florida, Hawaii and South Carolina. The governance system observed in DVC is principally controlled by the President Mr. Claire Bilby. DVC serves its customers with certain facilities which include travel & tourism related services, food and accommodation amenities along with special entertainment services for children among others. The operations of DVC are guided by its mission statement which states tha t â€Å"Treat customers like you want to be treated and they will become customers forever†. With references to the statement it can be affirmed that the organization intends to consider its customers as highly valuable with the intention to yield greater degree of satisfaction from customer rendering services and assistances as desired by individuals. This particular strategy is also believed to reward greater degree of customer loyalty thereby contributing to the long run sustainability of the organization (Disney Vacation Club, â€Å"Company Profile†). It is worth mentioning in this context that the company intends to frame simple strategies towards enhancing the performances of the entire workforce in order to serve its customers with efficient and effective services

Maintenance of Minority Languages in Majority Settings Essay Example for Free

Maintenance of Minority Languages in Majority Settings Essay Rather than showing the picture of how the people with different languages are related to each other, it is more essential to break down the orders of natural languages existing in any given area and only by this way that we can identify which language is considerable as good and appropriate to ensure somehow that they will continue to be used.   Language serves as marker of group of people and most disputes involved in language minorities deals with the way the languages are reproduced in consideration with the affiliation in geographical boundaries. Maintaining language minorities which are all too often ill-equipped for modern life, strengthens the position of the dominant language as the only common language of communication. Francophone comprises larger fraction of Canada’s speakers prior to the twentieth century and it went less due to imbalance in the flow of population such as birth rate among French speakers and as immigration of English speaking people. Quebec apparently endures English and they have maintained the high concentration of French speakers. Francophone  Canada  remained a vital community sustained by the hard efforts of people from within the community who ensure that the French speaking minority population will continue to thrive (Posner and Green 345-358). The same case had happened in some other part of the world where the people had different origin that changed their cultural sphere, such as in India which, aside from Hindi, also has some regional dialects. Having language minority remained as a matter of political questions especially as it was applied in instructional materials which requires rationalized language policy. Multilingual education came out as another option and a good consideration for better accessibility of education transcending the boundary of language (Groff 8-12). Endangerment or even extinction can be the worst case scenario when language wasn’t maintained. When we talk about endangered language, we refer to the gradual decrease of monolingual speakers using the language. One example of this implication was stated in the works of David and Maya Bradley (316-321) which tackles the revival of native languages of Aboriginal group in Australia. Designs for the attempt of reviving languages can only be possible with enough resources like documentations or retrieving information from similar languages. The efforts for this also require valid aim or intentions in having it done apparently to make it worthwhile than just having it done for the luxury of education. Losing the function of a language relates to the reasons for its decrease of usage or may extent to total non-usage. A language has the power as long as it has the function fulfilled as it was used contemporary industries. The report by Michelle Goldberg and David Corson (1-3) shows that bilingual Immigrants, with an official language learned, are not perceived to bear any advantage for they are not recognized in their chosen field even though, in some situations, proficiency in the language is a crucial skill required in the job. Valuing this skill thru formal recognition is greatly beneficial for the company itself since it contributes in returns in the market specially when dealing with bilingual clients. Linguistic minorities whether in Canada, or in Europe or in Asia don’t just preserve the natural communication means of their group but can also provide reflection of their culture which separates them to the rest. They were therefore protected and promoted by laws in the belief on its significant importance of preserving the identity of these groups (Jimenez Nakagawa 6). Compared to the situation in Australia, the minorities in Canada, Francophone, has different form since they are comparable to the majority group, Anglophone, when we talk about their origin. None of these two naturally emerged in the land since both were influences or contributions from European. French colonized Quebec after its discovery and for centuries, French has already been an official language (Mc Creery 6). Vitality of relationship between the language and culture in a community determines proliferation of a language therefore, and maintenance and preservation requires analysis of people in group by their demographic prominence, social status, and economic power. These variables can determine the vitality of a language relative to the culture developed in parallel to the language. In order to study the essential factors affecting the growth of the language and design a maintenance procedure, it needs a clear definition of the culture in which it is in. Anything that is associated with vernacular culture manifests linguistic features. Daily activities of people and collective behavior can show its relations to linguistic attributes then we can determine what perceptions and concepts influence the language (Grenoble and Whaley 261-264). Another implication that needs to be aided by language maintenance is the tendency that the difference in language would extend to the separation of people and a state. In Canada, tension rose between English speakers and French speakers, mainly Quebec, carrying the biggest fraction of French-Canada. For decades, a Marxist group called Front de Liberation de Quebec (FLQ) tried to gain sovereignty and fought for the independence. The government applied quick aid to pacify the nationalist actions by making French speakers feel more welcome as they created official policies for the benefit of bilinguals (Ruypers 149). From the viewpoint of anyone who wants to grow towards the wider immediate community such as in the case of minority relative to the majority surrounding them, it tends to make the minority encouraged to gain the actual condition of the majority. When we talk about the will to sustain linguistic identity, it needs to be acknowledged that it is important to develop individuals and the community without compromising the culture and language. Keeping the diversity of language varieties needs not to be broken instead should be respected in the way that none will be damaged (Bastardas-Boada 3-5). Any action in a community, whether it is verbal or physical, contributed to the culture that defines the distinction of human group. The ability to share with the rest this developed culture makes the group dynamic in the wider scope. These are the notions to be considered as a challenge for anyone attempting to participate in different social dimension. This idea can be applied to the relationship of minority and majority languages which are connected by communications since every language users are considered as part of the community of ideas and practices (Duranti 46). After all, the maintenance of a language, however few the users are, would be simplified as long as there is enough reason for it to stay. It will not matter whether the majority of people around use different language or doing different thing from what you do for if language really serves as a mean for communication, differences will then not make this a problem but a source for it to become richer and maintained. References Duranti, A. â€Å"Linguistic Anthropology†. UK:   Cambridge UP (1997): 46 Posner, R. and Greene, J.N. â€Å"Trends in Linguistics†. Walter de Gruyter and Co. (1993): 345-358 Groff, C. â€Å"Status and Acquisition Planning and Linguistics Minorities in India†.   (2003):8-12 Bradley, David and Maya. â€Å"Language Endangerment and Language Maintenance† TJ    International (2002): 316-321 Corson, D. and Goldberg, M. â€Å"Minority Languages learned Informally- The Social Construction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   of Language Skills through the Discourse of Ontario Employers† ON: University of   Ã‚  Ã‚   Toronto (2001): 1-3 Jimenez, V. and Nakagawa, M. â€Å"Linguistic Minorities† Public International Law and Policy   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Group (2005): 6 Mc Creery, C. â€Å"the Order of Canada† Toronto: University of Toronto Press Incorporated(2005):   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   6 Grenoble, L.A. and Whaley, L.J. â€Å"Endangered Languages† UK: Cambridge UP (1998): 261-264 Ruypers, J. et. al.†Canadian and World Politics†. Canada: Emond Montgomery (2005): 149 Bastardas-Boada Albert. â€Å"Linguistic Sustainability and Language Ecology†. Catalonia, Spain:    Centre Universitari de Sociolinguistica I Comunicacio (2005): 3-5

Analysis of Toyota’s Marketing Strategy Essay Example for Free

Analysis of Toyota’s Marketing Strategy Essay Surendra Bhandari1 [available at: http://papers. ssrn. com/sol3/papers. cfm? abstract_id=1624068 ] Abstract Toyota was established in 1937 in Japan. First time it introduced its product Corona in the US in 1965. By the 70’s, Toyota was the best-selling import brand in the US. During the 80’s, it started manufacturing vehicles in the US. In 2006, it had globally become the second largest car seller and third largest car sellers in the US having more than fifteen percent market share. It is estimated that by 2008 it is going to be the number one car producer and seller both in the US and across the world. This profound success of Toyota is associated with its most proficient market strategy. The case of Toyota notably proves that how important is market strategy in the life of a company to be a market leader. 1. Mission Toyota’s mission statement is as follows: â€Å"To sustain sustainable growth by providing the best customer experience and dealer support. † (Toyota, 2007) Customer satisfaction is the driving force for Toyota, which inspires it to provide the highest quality products and services. â€Å"Kaizen† is a word that Toyota upholds, which means â€Å"continuous improvement† of its technology, products, and services. In short, Kaizen for customer satisfaction is Toyota’s mission. Toyota further explains its mission as follows: 1 Dr. Bhandari can be contacted at: [emailprotected] com â€Å"Around here our values are just like yours. We are hard working. We are active in community. We are creating jobs. We celebrate our diversity. We are building cleaner greener cars. And this is just the beginning. † (Toyota, 2007) 2. Distinctive Competencies Among others, three distinctive competencies of Toyota are remarkable. These distinctive competencies appeal the consumers, build trust with them, and make them satisfied. These competencies are as follows: i. Popular Economy Car: Toyota is best known for ‘popular economy car’. It has successfully branded the concept of ‘popular economy car’, by producing cars matching to the concept. It has garnered its success by selling the concept to the consumer. It has also become profoundly successful in segmenting, targeting, and positioning. As a result, based on the pricing reports generated by over ten million visitors, out of top ten cars, three are Toyotas – Toyota Camry (No. 2), Toyota Corolla (No. 4), and Toyota Avalon (No. 8). (Kelly Blue Book, 2007) It produces eight varieties of cars. Among them, the prices for the four varieties cars range 10,000. 00 US $, three varieties range 15,000. 00 US $, and one variety ranges slightly over 20,000. 00 US $. ii. Cutting-edge Technology: Toyota simply did not stop to the concept of ‘popular economy car’. This concept could have easily turned into product maturity and decline. But Toyota continuously engaged in improving technology – design, looks, comfort, fuel efficiency, environmental friendliness, and other technical improvements. For example, Toyota Corolla was first introduced in Japan in 1966 and in the US in 1968 as a first generation Toyota Corolla. Since then roughly in every three years it is being developed and marketed in a new model. By 2006, tenth generation of Toyota Corolla was already launched with significant technological improvements. Toyota’s hybrid cars can be taken as another example. It started producing hybrid cars in 1995 however till 1999 Japan was 1 the only market for its hybrid cars. Coming to 2005, it became successful to capture a large chunk of US market. Today, it is selling almost seventy five percent of its hybrid cars alone in the US market. iii. Low Operating Cost: Why consumers purchase Toyota? The simple answer is that Toyota’s cars are distinctive with the properties of low operating cost. For example, a survey carried out by Toplin Strategy Group in 2007 has revealed that 73% of Prius owners had bought Toyota Prius because of financial incentive to purchase the vehicle such as lower sticker price or lower operating cost than other choices. (Marketing Green, 2007) Similarly, based on 45% highway driving and 55% city driving with annual 15,000 miles Toyota Prius has been proved to be the most fuel efficient car than any of its competitors such as Honda Civic Hybrid, Ford Escape Hybrid, and Lexus GS 450. (Fuel Economy, 2008). 3. Trends / Conditions Among many other factors, demand for energy efficient and greener cars, demand for low operating cost, and demand for high level of safety and comfort are the most significant factors that are influencing the trends and conditions of automobile marketplace. Today’s automobile sector can be best described as one of the sectors that are trying utmost to respond these important marketplace demands. Based on these demands, there is both good and bad news for the auto industry, including for Toyota. Good news is that there is surprisingly robust vehicle sale in the market. The bad news is that some of the leading automakers are shedding thousands more jobs. Some of the automakers are also projecting downward market trends. These trends are important because, automobiles are responsible for 13. 3 million US jobs, and US $ 675 billion revenue in the US economy. 2 On a year-on-year basis, Toyota sales has surged 10. 5%, General Motors Corp. has showed a year-on-year improvement posting 12. 1% sales gain, and Chrysler has taken a 15% year-on-year sales dive, whereas Ford Motor Co. has stayed mostly flat, down 0. 5%. In terms of global sales, Toyota is in second position following GM. In terms of sales in the US market, Toyota is in third position having 14. 9% of market shares in 2006. Union of concerned scientists in their 2007 report state that Toyota has regained second place overall in the environmental rankings as well and is the only automaker to make consistent improvements on its global warming score since 2001. Toyota has the best global warming performance in six out of ten classes and better than average performance in the rest. If past trends continue, Toyota may overtake Honda’s global warming score within two years. Doing so will require continued investment in hybrids. Globally, 53 millions new cars are sold in 2007. Out of them, 15. 9 millions are sold alone in the US. In 2007, around the world, it is estimated that there will be 806 million cars and light trucks on the road, out of them 244 million will be in operation in the US alone. Currently, these vehicles burn nearly 260 billion gallons of fuel yearly and by 2020, the number of cars and light trucks is estimated to reach above 1 billion. The years of 2004 through 2007 will long be remembered as a pivotal period in the automobile industry as during this period gasoline prices started a sea change among US consumers that is finally creating a significant demand for fuel efficient vehicles. As a result, this has lead to the phenomenal demand for Toyota’s Prius hybrid car. Responding to the demands of consumers Toyota has expanded its investments in Georgetown, Kentucky plant to enable to manufacture 48,000 hybrid cars yearly. Ford launched its first hybrids, and other carmakers, including GM, were greatly encouraged in their own efforts to bring more hybrids to the market. However, response to hybrids from U. S. makers has been lukewarm at best. Consumers 3 generally aren’t as impressed with U. S. hybrid technology as they are with that of Toyota models. In short, while the US based Big Three struggle, Toyota is being more strategic. It has increased its capacity to manufacture over 1. 5 million vehicles yearly in North America. On a global scale, the company plans to sell 10. 4 million vehicles by 2009, up from 8. 8 million in 2006. The big news is that Toyota is most likely surpassing GM in global sales by 2008, making Toyota the world’s largest carmaker. 4. Organizational Objectives Toyota has set seven fundamental objectives. Among them, to dedicate in providing clean and safe products and enhance the quality of life everywhere through better production and services is the main objective of Toyota. Similarly, its other objectives are: to honor the law, language and culture of every nation with fair corporate activities; contribute to economic and social development of communities around the world through corporate activities; create and develop advanced technologies and provide outstanding products and services to customers; foster individual’s creativity and teamwork value; pursue growth through innovative management; and work with business partners for mutual benefits. To achieve these objectives and their effective implementation, it has clearly set fourteen principles that are widely considered as Toyota’s Ways. Based on these principles, Toyota takes management decisions on a long-term philosophy, even at the expenses of a short-term financial goal. It believes in a continuous process flow to bring problems to the surface, uses visual control so that no problems are hidden, uses pull system to avoid overproduction, and works like tortoise and not the hare. It standardizes the tasks and processes as the foundation for continuous improvement and empowers employees by which it further enhances its ability to use only reliable and thoroughly tested technology that serves the customers. 4. Similarly, its organizational objectives are further substantiated by its idea of developing exceptional people and teams who follow the philosophy of Toyota, respect the network of partners and suppliers, and learn from the practices. It believes in making decisions slowly by consensus thoroughly considering all options and once the decisions are taken, it implements the decisions rapidly. On top of that, by becoming a learning organization through relentless reflection and continuous improvement of its products and services, Toyota can be exemplified as a case that has achieved its organizational objectives successfully. 5. Strategic Business Unit Toyota offers energy efficient, green, and popular economy cars, SUVs/Vans, hybrids, and light trucks with safety and comfort measures in place. It produces more than two dozen varieties of products. All of its products are globally very popular. Its products are sold in over 200 countries across the globe. On top of that, the US is the biggest market for Toyota. For example, till 2006 it had sold more than 7 million Toyota Corollas alone in the US. In the financial year 2006-07, in consolidated terms, it sold its products of 226. 06 billion US $ (23,948. 00 billion yen) and earned net income of 15. 17 billion US $ (1,644. 0 billion yen). (Toyota, 2006) In 2006, Toyota was engaged in a variety of projects designed to solidify its foundations while continuing to grow. On the product front besides its two dozen already launched products, Lexus has launched its new flagship model, the LS, and the new global Camry went on sale. In manufacturing, several new projects were started around the world. In May 2006, manufacturing of the Camry began in Guangzhou, China, while in the United States, the Kentucky plant, which in October 2006 celebrated 20 years of production, has started manufacturing the first Toyota hybrid vehicle to be made in North America, the Camry Hybrid. In November 2006, the Texas plant began producing the new Tundra truck, a key vehicle in Toyota’s North American lineup. 5 In Japan, Toyota Motor Kyushu, Inc. has begun full-scale operations at its engine factory, and Toyota Motor Tohoku Co. , Ltd. has increased its manufacturing capacity. In human resources development sector, following the establishment of the Asia Pacific Global Production Center in Thailand in August 2005, Toyota has established the North American Production Center in the U. S. in February 2006, and the European Global Production Center in the United Kingdom in March 2006. Established as branches of the Global Production Center in Japan, these were created to spread Toyota’s manufacturing knowledge and skills throughout the world in pace with the rapid growth of Toyota’s overseas manufacturing. In RD side, Toyota has focused its efforts on three key areas: environment, safety, and energy. It has made a special effort in the area of the environment by expanding its lineup of hybrid vehicles, and has worked on RD relating to plug-in hybrid. In addition, as part of Toyota’s efforts to respond to the diversification of energy, in 2007 Toyota has introduced a flex fuel vehicle in the Brazilian market that will run on 100% bio-ethanol fuel. From this point on, based on the philosophy of providing â€Å"the right car, in the right place, at the right time,† and in accordance with the infrastructure and customer needs of each region, Toyota is striving for promoting efforts to develop environmentally friendly technology and vehicles. 6. Boston Consulting Group Matrix Based on the Boston Matrix, the market situation of Toyota is Healthy. To support this statement, three products are chosen here – Camry, Prius, Corolla. These all fall into the category of Star as they are holding high market share and high market growth. All these three products are well established and the growth is exciting. These are creating fantastic opportunities. The only challenge is Toyota needs to maintain its Stars. And, it seems that for at least a couple of years Toyota will maintain its Stars. 6 Toyota Corolla: It is a compact car, very popular throughout the world since it was first introduced in 1966. In 1997 it became the bestselling car in the world; in 2004 it was the number one selling car in the US in its segment with over 30 million sold as of 2007. In the US alone, more than 7 million Toyota Corolla cars have been sold. Over the past 40 years, one Toyota Corolla car has been sold on average every 40 seconds. Today, it is manufactured in 16 countries in the world. It has been almost steadfast in face-lifting each generation after two years, and replacing it with an all-new model every four year. As a result, it has brought in market its 10th generation model in 2006 in Japan and has been introduced to the US market since October 2007. This product strategy of Toyota Corolla has helped it to be continuously in the Star quadruple. Toyota Camry: It is a mid-size car manufactured in the US, Australia, China, and Japan. In some markets, the top range Camry models are seen as executive cars. The Camry has been the bestselling car in the US, its largest consumer market, for nine of the last ten years starting in 1997, with the only exception in 2001. The first generation Camry was introduced in 1983 and in 2007 the sixth generation Camry has been introduced. The sixth-generation Toyota Camry is the first generation in which it has been available as a gasoline/electric hybrid. EPA fuel economy estimates for the 2007 Toyota Camry Hybrid 38 MPG in city and 40 MPG on highway. Toyota Prius: It is a hybrid electric vehicle and one of the first such vehicles to be massproduced and marketed. The Prius first went on sale in Japan in 1997, and worldwide in 2001. By the end of 2003, nearly 160,000 units had been produced for sale in Japan, Europe, and North America. The Prius has won several awards, including the Car of the Year Japan in 1997/98, the North American Car of the Year 2004, and the European Car of the Year 2005. EPA has recently revised environmental standards and the Prius 2007 has been acknowledged as the most fuel efficient car sold in the US. Its market share in the US is growing each year. In 7 2000, Prius market share in the US was very negligible but by 2005 out of its total sale the US alone had consumed about seventy percent. 7. Organizational Strategy for Growth Toyota has already got market over 200 countries across the globe. Only in 2006, it sold 8. 52 million of its products and has planned to be a number one car producing and selling company by 2008. This ambitious strategy of market penetration is associated with its proficient demographic and psychographic segmentation and targeting. It has successfully got high level of positioning in the mind of the consumers with its brand and distinctive competencies as discussed above disseminating through integrated market communication (IMC) techniques. Toyota has diversified its product with a brand of right car in the right place. For example, it has introduced a flex fuel vehicle in the Brazilian market that will run on 100% bio-ethanol fuel. It has introduced hybrid electric car (Prius) mostly for the market in the US, Japan, and EU. On top of that in each two year it improves looking of its product and in each four year transforms model into new one. By upholding this strategy of product development, Toyota has become successful in managing product life cycle, more specifically it introduces product and keeps the product growing without letting them to be matured and decline. Its exceptional organizational strategy for growth is importantly nurtured by its strategy working with around 522 subsidiaries around the world and successfully creating a wider market chain around the globe. Another way of Toyota’s organizational strategy for growth is that it reads the public mind through its research department that monitors the industry and keeps tabs on demographic and economic developments. Its mission: to predict consumer trends and create a lineup of cars and trucks to capitalize on them. Each professional is expected to spend time out in the field talking 8 to car buyers. The Japanese have a name for it: genchi genbutsu go to the scene and confirm the actual happenings. 8. Market Share While looking at the market share of Toyota in the US market since 1980 to 2006, it is realized that its market share is continuously growing. For example, in the 80s Toyota’s market share in the US was about 5% and that has risen to above 15% by 2006. So in a twenty-five years time Toyota has outstandingly tripled its market share in the US. On the other hand, market share of its three major competitors GM, Ford, and Chrysler is gradually declining. In the 80s GM’s market share in the US was above forty-five percent. But by 2006 GM’s market share has shrunk to 24%. Similarly, in the 80s Ford had more than twenty-three percent market share but by 2006 its market share has come down to sixteen percent. By being successful in increasing market share, Toyota has become the world’s most profitable automaker. In 2006, it sold 2. 5 million cars and trucks in the US market alone. Because, Toyota is already bigger than Chrysler in the US and is about to pass Ford by 2008, Toyota’s presence in the US is now so prominent that the 3,322 business leaders surveyed by Fortune have named Toyota as one of America’s most admired companies. On the financial side, Toyota’s net revenue for the fiscal year 2007 is 23. 94 trillion yen, which is an increase of 13. 8 percent compared to the fiscal year of 2006. In 2007, its operating income has increased by 19. 2 percent to 2. 23 trillion yen. Its net income has increased by 19. 8 percent to 1. 64 trillion yen. All of these figures marked record high. It is estimated that the consolidated vehicle sales for the fiscal year 2008 will be 8. 89 million units. The revenue for the fiscal year 2008 is estimated to be 25. 00 trillion yen. While we compare its net income from 2004 to 2006, it is clearly shown that its net income is increasing each year. For example its net 9 income for the year 2004 was 1,162,998 million yen that increased to 1,171,260 million yen in 2005, and in 2006 that further increased to 1,372,180 million yen. 9. Elements of Marketing Strategy Toyota’s segmentation and target market is guided by its philosophy of ‘right car in the right place’. Toyota has employed both demographic and psychographic form of multiple segmentations and targeted its market on that basis. For example, it has segmented all the countries across the globe as its market. But has also identified its focused market such as the US, Canada, EU, Australia, China, India, and Indonesia. On top of that US is its first priority being the biggest market. It is because, US consumes almost 30% of its products. Its products range with different prices from US $ 10,000. 00 to 30,000. 00 plus. The economy class cars are targeted to lower and middle level income people and the luxury cars are targeted to higher middle and higher income group people. With a variety of product attributes it targets different age group and professional groups of people. For example, for sport people it has sport cars. For environmentally sensitive people it has Prius – environmentally green car. Likewise, it has offered 100% bio-ethanol fuel car in Brazil, where is bio-ethanol potential. Likewise, those who are truck lovers or professional who need trucks, it offers them different variety of trucks. In fact, its marketing strategy – segmentation, targeting, and positioning is nurtured by its variety of offers and product attributes. Further, it has designed its market strategy at different levels – global level, regional level, and national level based on the assessment of customer needs and choices. Toyota focuses its products in market with comfort, kindness, and excitement. Toyota claims that its products harmonize ecology and emotions. One of the key factors for designing segmentation and targeting, Toyota’s analysis is always based on the condition of market, economy, purchasing 10 capacity, and consumers’ choices. Based on these factors Toyota is launching its global motorization strategy with leading-edge technology. Likewise, Toyota has upheld a very strong promotional strategy using integrated market communication (IMC) tool. On top of that, Toyota blog (http://blog. toyota. com) is another very successful mechanism of advertising and promotion. On its blog, Toyota closely pays attention to the voices of its customers and provides responses to a large amount of inquiry. 10. Elements of Market Planning Toyota has adopted three important elements in its market planning – green, safety, and low operating cost. Being based on these three important factors, Toyota has become successful to garner the market opportunity. On the whole, there seem more opportunities for Toyota than threats. However, there are some threats that cannot be denied. Opportunities: Toyota’s market share is growing each year. From about 5 percent market share in 1986, it has acquired more than 15 percent market share in the US in 2006. Its competitors’ market share is declining each year, which is the biggest opportunity for Toyota. Toyota and its competitors have similar segmentation and targeting but in creating positioning Toyota has come off much ahead than its competitors because of its products’ attributes. Further, it is also ahead of its competitors in technology front. For example, it is the first automobile producer that introduced hybrid in the market. Today, the market share for its hybrid is growing exponentially. At the same time, hybrid products of its competitors are not successful. Threats: Besides opportunities in the marketplace, Toyota’s most illustrated product – Prius has not got much success in Europe and its market share is declining in Japan itself. Further, its competitors – GM, Ford, and Chrysler have become more strategic and are being focused on 11 from cutting-edge technology to leading-edge technology. Toyota is growing with ambition to pass the GM but still GM is the number one automobile in the US and the globe. 11. Conclusion From the perspective of marketing strategy, Toyota can be taken as a company that has successfully achieved its mission statement, successfully branded its distinctive competencies, and profoundly achieved its organizational objectives. This success is based on its successful market strategy. This is corroborated by the fact that all of its products studied in this paper (Toyota Corolla, Camry, and Prius) do fall into Star quadruple under the Boston Matrix. In quintessence, it can be said that Toyota is an outstanding case for learning how to build and implement market strategy, get penetration in the market, manage product life cycle, uphold market positioning, best use of integrated market communication (IMC), and branding its product in the mindset of the customer. In short, Toyota is a notable example that proves how important is marketing strategy in the life of a company and managers. References CNNMoney, (2007), America’s Best Car Companies, Mrach 7, 2007 available on http://money. cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2007/03/19/8402324/index. htm visited on Nov. 20, 2007. Fuel Economy, (2008), 2008 Hybrid Vehicles, available on , http://www. fueleconomy. gov/feg/hybrid_sbs. shtml , visited on Nov. 22, 2007. Kelly Blue Book, (2007), The Most Researched Sedans, available on http://www. kbb. com/kbb/ReviewsAndRatings/default. aspx? trid=3gclid=CKrS8rHMgI8CFTa oGgodgyqT2w#ManufacturerId=49ModelId=286 visited on Nov. 27, 2007. Kotler, Phlipe Keller,Kevin Lane (2006), Marketing Management, Prentice Hall, 12th ed. 12 Marketing Green, (2007), Hybrids Shift into the Mass Market, available on http://marketinggreen. wordpress. com/2007/04/29/hybrids-shift-into-the-mass-market/ visited on Nov. 20, 2007. Plunket Research, (2007), Automotive Industry Overview, available on http://www. plunkettresearch. com/Industries/AutomobilesTrucks/AutomobilesandTrucksStatis tics/tabid/90/Default. aspx , visited on Nov. 19, 2007. Spirou, Patricia (2007), Three Step Process in Determining the Market/Position Initiatives in Strategic Planning, available on BB.

Literature Review On Defining Employee Engagement

Literature Review On Defining Employee Engagement The purpose of this review is to present the definitions of engagement found in the literature and list the drivers of engagement that have been identified by many authors. The Sunday Times 100 Best companies to Work For surveys eight engagement factors will also be explained in detail along with their link to engagement. Subsequently, authors views on the factors that turned out to be more sensitive for Addleshaw Goddard will be reported along with authors recommendations on how to leverage them in order to boost employee engagement. Introduction In the midst of economic crisis and with its unavoidable negative effect on employee morale and motivation, it is important that organisations take steps to maintain, if not increase, employee engagement [IDS report, April 2009, Vol. 892, pp2] Most studies conducted around the topic shows its link to company performance and sustainability, as Bates et al. claimed that employee engagement predicts employee outcome, organisational success and financial performance [Bates, 2004; Baumruk, 2004; Harter et al, 2002; Richman, 2006]. Lockwood [2007], in her report pointed out that it is a key business driver for organisational success and that high levels of engagement in firms promote retention of talent, foster customer loyalty and improve organisational performance and stakeholder value. The importance of engagement is that it has an effect of what people do and how they behave in their jobs and what makes them act in ways that further both, the organisational objectives and their personal goals. Defining Employee Engagement Employee engagement is growing as a concept within the business world due to evidence and research that points out that an engaged workforce performs better and hence creates a strong employer brand [Leigh and Roper, 2009]. This promotes organisations as good employers hence recruiting and retaining key talent becomes less problematic, as evident from the IDS report [2009], where they state, effective employer branding captures the essence of an organisation and sells it to the labour market and employees. A strong employer brand embraces an organisations vision, values and working culture. [IDS Report, April 2009] On the subject of engagement, the Chartered Institute of Personnel Development (CIPD) says that Employee Engagement, or passion for work, involves employees feeling positive about their job, as well as being prepared to go the extra mile [CIPD, 2010]. Macey et al. [2008] argues that engagement has been used to refer to a psychological state (e.g., involvement, commitment, attachment), performance (e.g., either effort or observable behaviour), character (e.g., positive affect), or a combination of the above. For example, Wellins and Concelman [2005] suggested that engagement is an amalgamation of commitment, loyalty, productivity and ownership. It is personified by the passion and energy employees have to give to the organisation. It is all about the willingness and ability of the employees to give constant discretionary effort to help their organisation succeed [Cook, 2008]. Furthermore, Towers Perrin Talent Report [2003] which is a study that tracks views and attitudes of employees to understand the elements of the work experience that drive attraction, retention and engagement has defined engagement as a factor that involves both emotional and rational factors relating to work and overall work experience, where the emotional factors are linked to peoples personal satisfaction and the sense of inspiration and affirmation they get from their work and from being part of their organisation. Engagement can be seen as a combination of commitment to the organisation and its values plus a willingness to help out and support colleagues (i.e. team work) Improvements in engagement can be made in many areas and the key concepts are trust, listening, flexible working and the avoidance of the long hour culture. However, this is not in itself a new concept, and highlighting this, Rankin [2008] refers to engagement as: embracing the older concepts of job satisfaction, motivation and attachment that describes individual employees attitudes to their employer, but goes beyond them to provide a complete model of the psychological relationship between individuals and organisations. Rankin [2008] This suggests that employee engagement is inextricably linked to the Psychological, or unwritten contract which exists and concerns discretionary effort, having many positive effects. For example Leigh and Roper [2010] highlighted that psychological contract is a subjective behaviour where employers and employees have their own perception of what is expected of each other. Hence, it is obvious that engagement is something that employees have to offer and that it is impossible to require engagement as part of the employment contract. It is rather an emotional link to the organisation, its purpose and its people. When an organisation delivers on its commitments (when by their actions they fulfil employees expectations), this reinforces employees sense of fairness and trust in the organisation and generates a positive psychological contract between employers and employee. There are many reported examples of employers who have executed strategies to improve employee engagement through business transformation, which in turn improved employee morale, retention and ultimately business performance. Rankin [2008] suggests that management are more likely to embrace initiatives to drive employee engagement, rather than simple retention strategies, owing to the extra benefits of such strategies, such as improved business performance, profitability, focus on customer service and organisational efficiency, of which retention is a positive by-product. What are the Key Levers of Employee Engagement? Defining engagement is crucial but the real value is in determining what creates engagement. Therefore, where studies have been conducted on engagement, there has also be reports on the key enablers of engagement. There is a range of opinions on what the key drivers or enablers are, for example the findings of the UK Governments MacLeod Review into employee engagement have underlined the critical role played by an engaged workforce [MacLeod and Clarke 2009] in both organisational success and individual well-being. As an example, ibid. [2009] suggested in their study that Leadership, Employee Voice, Engaging Managers and Integrity were strong levers in engaging workforce. In other words, without these factors, organisations would have disengaged staff which would lead to poor performance. Furthermore, Lockwood [2007] also underlines that engagement is influenced by many factors, from workplace culture, organisational communication and managerial styles to trust and respect, leadership and company reputation. For todays different generations, access to training and career opportunities, work-life balance and empowerment to make decisions have also become imperative. According to Towers Perrin report [2003] the factors that drive engagement are a combination of Macleod et al. [2008] and Lockwoods [2007] study such as, (a) Senior managements interest in employees well-being (b) Challenging work, (c) Decision-making authority (d) Career-development opportunities (e) The companys reputation as a good employer (f) Collaborative work environment and (g) Clear vision from senior management about future success, to name a few.  [1]   There is no definitive list of engagement drivers. However, CIPDs [2010] research into employee attitudes found that the main drivers of employee engagement were communication and leadership, along with pay and benefits, learning and development, line management and work-life balance as key factors of measuring employee attitudes which can determine how engaged a workforce is. An alternative model of engagement comes from the burnout literature, which describes job engagement as the positive contrast of burnout, underlining that burnout involves the erosion of engagement with ones job [Maslach et al 2001]. According to Maslach et al, six areas of work-life lead to engagement: workload, control, rewards and recognition, community and social support, perceived fairness and values. They argue that job engagement is associated with a sustainable workload, feelings of choice and control, appropriate recognition and reward, a supportive work community, fairness and justice, and meaningful and valued work. Like burnout, engagement is expected to intercede the link between these six work-life factors and various work outcomes. May et als [2004] findings support Maslach et als [2001] notion of meaningful and valued work being associated with engagement, and therefore it is important to consider the concept of meaning. The development of survey tools and questionnaires such as Gallups Q12  [2]  and The Best Company Survey allow levels of engagement within an organisation to be measured. Most of the studies mentioned above have some common theme. Similarly, while Purcell et al [2003] found a number of factors to be strongly associated with high levels of employee engagement, the one thing all of these factors had in common was that they were connected with an employees involvement in a practice related to their work. The Best Companies Survey has also done their share of research linking it to some of the existing researches and categorised the measurements of engagement into eight factors as mentioned earlier in Chapter 1. Critics of Employee Engagement Even though Employee Engagement has become such a commonly used term within the organisational scene, as it is seen as a lever for business success [Wiley, 2010] some studies have shown that organisations fail to understand the true meaning of engagement as quoted by Macey et al.[2008] numerous definitions of engagement can be derived from practice and research driven literatures but the literal meaning is still not clear among practitioners and academics [Macey and Schneider, 2008: pp4] An example of this could be seen from the study Cunningham et al. [1996] did on Empowerment. After the 1990s when empowerment was introduced in the business world, there was a hype about it for years where organisations wanted to Empower their people, without considering the true meaning of the word. While empowerment only represented the most recent manifestation of employee involvement practice [Cunnigham et al., 1996: pp143]. Also argued by Wilkinson [1997] that the term empowerment when first introduced was very loosely used [Wilkinson, 1998: p40]. Likewise, engagement is seen and known widely as beneficial for organisations yet engagement in the UK is said to be critically low as employers are said to be barking up the wrong tree, as Holmes [2010] reports on personnel today. Also as witnessed in Wileys [2010] report he found that UK engagement results lag behind compared to the global results. This is mainly because of the lack of understanding the term as a whole. Hence the concept of employee engagement could be viewed as being faddish and might fade away in a few years when another concept is introduced in the business world. Employee Involvement versus Employee Participation According to CIPD [2010X]: Employee involvement is a range of processes designed to engage the support, understanding and optimum contribution of all employees in an organisation and their commitment to its objectives. Whereas. Employee participation is defined as a process of employee involvement designed to provide employees with the opportunity to influence and where appropriate, take part in decision making on matters which affect them. Farnham [1997] defines Employee Participation as one of four choices for managing the employment relationship. Cited in Rose [2008, p335] Farnham states: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦an employee has the right to question and influence organization decision makingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. this may involve representative workplace democracy. The other policy choices Farnham identifies are worker subordination via managerial prerogative, union incorporation via collective bargaining and employee commitment via employee involvement. It is clear then that there are differences between employee participation and employee involvement. The literature suggests that employee participation is a pluralist/collective approach with a range for employees from no involvement to full control [Blyton Turnbull, 1998]. Hence, it may involve processes and mechanisms such as: Collective bargaining Employee share schemes Works councils Worker directors Joint Consultative Committees European Works Councils Whereas, Employee involvement, is more of an individualistic and unitarist approach which aims to harness commitment to organisational objectives. Defining Leadership Leadership is about the ability to influence people by personal attributes and behaviours [CIPD, 2010a]. Leaders need to act out and communicate organisational values otherwise this endangers trust in organisations leading to poor performance. Hence, the Best Company measures how people feel about the head of the organisation, the senior management team, and organisational values. Rayner and Adam-Smith [2007] have pointed out that leaders are key players in devising and implementing organisational strategies. And high level of engagement depends in the way employees are led and managed, as quoted by Armstrong [2009]: degree to which jobs encourage engagement and positive discretionary behaviour depends upon the ways in which job holders are led and managed on any formal process of job design. [Armstrong, 2009:140] There is considerable evidence from prior research that perceptions of managerial processes impact on engagement [Wildermuth and Pauken, 2008]. Evidence suggests that employees level of engagement and other work responses are affected by their perceptions of management or leadership style. For example, opportunities for upward feedback increase engagement through greater participation, which, in turn, relates to better understanding of broader organisational issues as well as personal involvement [Robinson et al 2004]. 3.4.1 Role of leaders in engagement In Macleods engagement report [2009] he stressed that leadership provides a strong strategic narrative which has widespread ownership and commitment from managers and employees at all levels. However, it has been proven through Hays Group research findings [2010] that 56 per cent of leaders were disengaging the staff that they led; and only 26 per cent of the leaders achieved in creating an engaging environment that encouraged high performance. In order for employees to be engaged, it is crucial that leaders themselves be engaged; they need to work and succeed in both their core and non-core job roles [reference] Management from the top to the bottom of the organisation should be committed leaders and key role of the immediate line manager/supervisor is recognised as one of the most important channel to achieving effective employee engagement. Leadership plays a vital role in influencing levels of employee engagement. Goal clarity and direction are identified as factors that can influence an employees level of engagement [Rayner and Adam-Smith, 2007]. Staff perform well when they are clear about their goals and objectives, and know how to go about achieving them, an example could be Latham and Lockes Goal-Setting Theory [1979] where they suggest that by establishing goals individuals are motivated to take action to achieve those goals. As a result, employees tend to be motivated and committed to it. Hence, communication of clear goals and direction from the leader becomes crucial. Leaders also help employees develop personal accountability for their goals and help achieve them. Setting performance expectations and instilling personal responsibility among employees are critical for getting results. The biggest challenges which leaders face is how to effectively motivate, initiate change, and sustain improved performance amo ng employees i.e. Employee engagement has emerged as a critical leadership challenge [Molinari and Weiss, 2005]. Leaders should provide challenging work with opportunities for career growth. Good leaders challenge employees but at the same time they should create confidence that the challenges can be met [Seijts and Crim, 2006]. 3.4.2 Dealing with Professionals/Leaders reluctance from leaders to learn As mentioned above, leaders play a vital role in communicating the firms strategy, values and culture. Leadership style and support are also said to be crucial for encouraging employee engagement. Years of occupational health psychology research have revealed that a transformational leadership style is effective for this task [Barling, 2007], where leaders lead to positive changes in those who follow. However, Leadership development proves to be a big challenge for HR professionals. HR professionals continue to wrestle with understanding the best ways to retain talent and develop leaders for future succession planning. Increasingly recognised as becoming strategic business partners within their organizations, HR professionals are expected to provide the essential frameworks, processes, tools, and points of view needed for the selection and development of future leaders. Across the globe leadership development has been identified as a critical strategic initiative in ensuring that the right employees are retained, that the culture of the organization supports performance from within to gain market position, and that managers are equipped to take on leadership roles of the future so that the organisation is feasible in the long term. Even though they play such an important role in engagement and instilling HR policies, research has shown that senior managers can be a challenge and be reluctant to their responsibilities as HR mediators. As Pech [2009] quoted in his research that what may be good for the organisation may not be perceived to be quite as good to the organisations senior managers. Research in Europe emphasises the negative impact these defensive managerial behaviours have on organisations and performance in general. The Towers Perrin consulting groups survey showed that 42 percent of employees felt that their senior managers dont have a sincere interest in their well-being and another 37 per cent believed that their senior managers fail to lead by example in demonstrating company values [Towers Perrin Report, 2004]. My Manager Engaged managers are at the heart of this organisational culture as Macleod [2009] said: they facilitate and empower rather than control or restrict their staff; they treat their staff with appreciation and respect and show commitment to developing, increasing and rewarding the capabilities of those they manage. Role of Managers in engagement As Lowe [1992, cited in Blyton and Turnbull:148], highlighted that a consistent theme of the HRM literature is about the responsibility given to line managers for the management of the human resource. While Poole [1990] emphasises that HRM involves all managerial personnel especially general managers. All the studies on motivation and retention of talent identify the critical role of line managers and the quality of the relationship with the boss as a key factor. According to Gallup Management Journal study, line-managers play a critical role in employees well-being and engagement. Macleod [2010] also points out that having able managers is critical as engaged managers lead to an engaged workforce [Macleod, 2010] as there is a positive impact on managers treating people as individuals. Managers are critical of the quality of management training they receive from their company. Senior management need to have a sincere interest in employees well being [Towers and Perrin, 2006] whereas line managers play the vital roles in terms of employee engagement as they are responsible for the most of the front line employees and the day-to-day activities [Cook, 2008]. Line managers are also responsible for bringing reward policies to life, organisational commitment and job satisfaction [Purcell, CIPD, 2007]. The line manager clearly has a very important role in fostering employees sense of involvement and value [Robinson et al. 2004]. Employee engagement is seen as a direct reflection of how employees feel about their relationship with the boss [Seijts and Crim, 2006]. One of the biggest challenges for HR is to support line managers in their role of managing and developing people. A majority of line managers seem to be failing in many or most of the basic elements of good management including providing regular feedback or offering to help improve individuals employment [CIPD, 2010]. Importance of Internal Communication True Communication builds a bridge between two people or within a group via which real understanding and contact occur. [Leary-Joyce 2004:pp53]. Internal communication is known as the most obvious method of generating and maintaining engaged employees. Punjaisri et al. [2008], in his research identified that employees mentioned training and internal communications as the major methods of internal branding. The authors also quoted: although training and internal communication can help employees to fulfil brand promise, the strength of their relationship with the brand is predominantly down to employee attitude. The discovered that brand identification, commitment and loyalty were all partial indicators between internal communication and employee brand performance. [ibid., 2008] Whenever there has been research on engagement, communication has always been a big part of it. It has been long-established that communicating with employees effectively is important in making them feel valued and this is particularly the case in the current economic climate when staff may feel more uncertain and require some additional reassurance [IDS, April 2009]. It is also said to be a mechnism for enabling every aspect of a great company culture [Leary-joyce, 2004] What is Employee Voice? The concept of employee voice focuses on opportunities for employees to be involved in decisions collectively, whether through trade unions or by other means. Gradually this process of two-way communication became known as employee voice. It appeals both to those seeking greater business efficiency and to those looking for employee rights. CIPD research suggests that organisations that seek to promote voice are those that believe that employees want to contribute to the business and that for employees to have an effective voice, the important part of the communication process is not what the employer puts out but what it gets back. Good managers recognise that much of the knowledge required for businesses to be competitive is actually in employees heads. Voice is defined most typically in terms of two-way communications, an exchange of information between managers and employees or having a say about what goes on in the organisation. However, there are differences in interpretation. Some managers see voice as enabling all employees to represent their views to managers, and for those views to be taken into account. Other managers take the more limited view that voice is not so much a dialogue or two-way exchange of ideas as a mechanism for employees to transmit ideas to managers in order to improve organisational performance. Mechanisms for employee voice There is a range of different and often complementary mechanisms for employee voice. The CIPD research referred to above put them into two broad categories: upward problem-solving and representative participation. Upward problem-solving which refers to any technique that managers use to tap into employee ideas and opinions, either through two-way communications channels or through specific systems that are set up for employees to express their voiceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the structures are management-initiated and operate directly between managers and employees rather than through employee representatives. Techniques include Electronic media, Two-way communications, Suggestion schemes, Attitude surveys, etc. Representative participation refers to schemes under which employee representatives meet managers on a regular basis in the case of scheduled committees, or through more ad hoc arrangements. The essential characteristicà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦is that participation is not direct between individual employees and their managers but is mediated through representatives. Partnership schemes, Joint consultation, Collective representation are known as a few techniques All these mechanisms are formal. But informal mechanisms in effect, simply having a word about a problem to a manager who listens and takes action if necessary can be a very effective form of voice. Informal mechanisms may be relatively more important in smaller organisations where fewer formal structures are needed. 2.5.3.1 Two-way communications IDS Report, [2009] has highlighted the fact that while it is important to keep employees well-informed, an organisation seeking to engage employees should also encourage upward communication. For example, carrying out surveys or holding discussion groups as a way of encouraging employees to provide feedback which would involve employees in a dialogue with the company. The very act of carrying out research on engagement within the organisation can be engaging particularly where employees are directly involved in discussions. [IDS, Apr 2009] Encouraging people to have their say and this emphasised as a core value of the organisation that management at all levels must be prepared to listen and respond to any contributions their people make. Employee involvement and participation are (EIP) are regarded by Marchington and Wilkinson [2008] as a key feature of high-commitment HRM. Excellent leadership and management are built of effective communication and is a source of creativity and innovation. 2.5.4 Trust Important determinants for achieving trust are demonstrations of managerial passion for the work and managerial concern for employee welfare, hiring the right employees in the first instance, and then providing them with a sense of control over their lives. Employees will ask for trust and a sense of control in order to be engaged in their work [Pech 2009] (See Figure 2). Managerial passion for the work Employee sense of trust and control = Employee Engagement Managerial concern for employee welfare Effective recruitment Source: Pech, J. [2009] Fig. 2 Determinants for establishing and sustaining employee engagement Well-Being In the Best company survey well-being is used to measure stress, pressure, the balance between work and home life and the impact of these factors on personal health and performance. It has been reported that employee engagement is more likely to be sustainable when employee well-being is also high [Robertson and Cooper, 2009]. CIPD Flexible working perceived flexibility and supportive work-life policies were related to greater employee engagement and longer than expected retention. [Richman, et al., 2008] Guest[1987], in his model of flexibility, underlined that the three components of flexibility are: (a) related to the organisational design, (b) job design and (c) employee attitudes and motivations. [cited in Legge, 2005]. Flexible work practices have been viewed by employees as valuable workplace tools to facilitate work-life management. Employees report that workplace flexibility influences decisions to join an employer, satisfaction with their jobs, and plans to stay with their employers. Recently, some employers have come to recognise that workplace flexibility positively influences valued business outcomes such as attracting, motivating, and retaining key talent in competitive labour markets, increasing employee satisfaction and engagement, as well as improving efficiency and effectiveness. However, although several studies have examined the role of organizational characteristics and work experiences as antecedents of engagement and retention [Burud Tumolo, 2004; Gibbons, 2006; Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch, Topolnytsky, 2002], few have investigated the influence of workplace flexibility in particular. Work Life Balance Employee-focused initiatives such as implementing work-life balance initiatives are important in order to connect with employees [Seijts and Crim, 2006]. Employers seek to promote work-life balance by introducing policies that fall within three broad categories: flexible working, including reduced and compressed hours; time off and special leave; and staff support, such as employee well-being programmes and childcare provision [IDS, April 2009]. The mere existence of work-life policies and is associated with positive outcomes for the individual and the organisation. Employees who worked for organisations that had family-friendly policies in place, had higher levels of commitment towards the organisation and lower intentions to leave [Richman et al. 2008] Organisations are better able to portray an image of being a caring employer if they show an obligation and importance to work-life balance. Work-life balance initiatives should seek to improve employees working lives together with their personal lives to the mutual benefit of both employees and employers. Employees should have greater flexibility to pursue their interests outside work and to fulfil any caring responsibilities at home. In the workplace, they are likely to be more in control of their workload and, as a result, feel a greater sense of well-being. In turn, employers may benefit from greater employee engagement. [IDS, Apr 2009] Stress at work Stress has been moving steadily up the workplace agenda in recent years. Any stress can reduce employee well-being and excessive or sustained work pressure can lead to stress [CIPD, 2010]. Hence, it is important to develop a culture that encourages positive attitudes to work, reducing stress and promoting interest and excitement in their jobs (role of top and line managers and leaders). Also communication, involvement, work-life balance are key feature of high-commitment HRM [Marchington and Wilkinson 2008]. Personal Growth Learning is a satisfying and rewarding experience that makes a significant contribution to intrinsic motivation. Alderfer [1972] as cited in Armstrong [2008] emphasised the importance of giving employees the opportunity to grow and develop as it is said to be a motivating factor that directly impacts on engagement when it is an intrinsic element of the work [Armstrong, 2008]. IDS report points out that designing roles that are challenging and giving employees varied responsibilities can help make work more intrinsically engaging [IDS, 2009]. 3.7.1 Career Progression Providing clear and transparent career paths can be vital to engaging em

Plato Vs. Aristotle :: essays research papers

Plato vs. Aristotle Plato and Aristotle, two philosophers in the 4th century, hold polar views on politics and philosophy in general. This fact is very cleverly illustrated by Raphael's "School of Athens" (1510-11; Stanza della Segnatura, Vatican), where Plato is portrayed looking up to the higher forms; and Aristotle is pointing down because he supports the natural sciences. In a discussion of politics, the stand point of each philosopher becomes an essential factor. It is not coincidental that Plato states in The Republic that Philosopher Rulers who possess knowledge of the good should be the governors in a city state. His strong interest in metaphysics is demonstrated in The Republic various times: for example, the similes of the cave, the sun, and the line, and his theory of the forms. Because he is so involved in metaphysics, his views on politics are more theoretical as opposed to actual. Aristotle, contrarily, holds the view that politics is the art of ruling and being ruled in turn. In The Politics, he attempts to outline a way of governing that would be ideal for an actual state. Balance is a main word in discussing Aristotle because he believes it is the necessary element to creating a stable government. His less metaphysical approach to politics makes Aristotle more in tune with the modern world, yet he is far from modern. Plato's concept of what politics and government should be is a direct result of his belief in the theory of forms. The theory of forms basically states that there is a higher "form" for everything that exists in the world. Each material thing is simply a representation of the real thing which is the form. According to Plato, most people cannot see the forms, they only see their representation or their shadows, as in the simile of the cave. Only those who love knowledge and contemplate on the reality of things will achieve understanding of the forms. Philosophers, who by definition are knowledge lovers, are the only beings who can reach true knowledge. This concept has to be taken a step further because in The Republic, Plato states that philosophers should be the rulers since they are the only ones who hold the form of the good. Plato seems to be saying that it is not enough to know the forms of tables or trees, one must know the greatest form--form of the good--in order to rule. The reasoning is: if you know the good, then you will do the good. Therefore, philosopher rulers are by far the most apt to rule. In The Republic, Plato builds around the idea of Philosopher Rulers.